XII. Altruism Versus Egoism

OHAPTER XII. ALTRUISM VERSUS EGOISM. § 75. If we define altruism as being all action which, ill the normal course of things, benefits others instead of benefiting .se1£, then, from the dawn of life, altruism has been no less essential than egoism. Though primarily it is dependent on egoism, yet secondarily egoism is dependent on it. Under altruism in this comprehensive sense, I take in the acts by which offspring are preserved and the species maintained. }Ioreover, among these acts must be included not such only as are accompanied by consciousness, but. also such as conduce to the we1£are of offspring without mental representation of the welfare-acts of automatic altruism as we may call them. Nor· must there be left. out those lowest altrnistic acts which subserve race-mainten ance without implying even automatic nervous processes -acts not in the remotest sense psychical, but in Q literal sense physical. Whatever action, unconscious or conscious, involves expenditure of individual life to the end of increasing life in other individuals, is unquestionably altruistic in a sense, if not in the usual sense; and it is here needful to understand it in this sense that we may see how conscious altruism grows out of unconscious altruism.

The simplest beings-habitually multiply by spontaneous 202 'l'HE DATA OF ETHICS. fission. Physical altruism of the lowest kind, differentiating from physical egoism, may in this case be considered as not yet independent of it. For since the two halves which before fission constituted the individual, do not on dividing disappear, we must say that though the individuality of the parent infusorium or other protozoon is lost in ceasing to be single, yet the old individual continues to exist in each of the new individuals. When, however, as happens generally with these smallest animals, an interval of qules cence ends in the breaking up of the whole body into minute parts, each of which is the gerlTI of a young one, we see the parent entirely sacrificed in forming progeny. Here might be described how among creatures of higher grades, by fission or gemmation, parents bequeath parts of their bodies, more or less organized, to form offspring at the cost of their own individualities. Numerous examples might also be given of the ways in 'which the development of ova is carried to the extent of Inaking the parental bodJ little more than a receptacle for them: the implication being that the accumulations of nutrinlent which parental activities have laid up, are disposed of for the benefit of posterity.

And then might be dwelt on the lTIultibudinous cases where, as generally throughout the insect-world, maturity having been reached and a new generation provided for, life ends: death follows the sacrifices made for progeny. But leaving these lower types in which the altruism is physical only, or in which it is physical and automatically psychical only, let us ascend to those in which it is also, to a considerable degree, conscious. Though in birds and ll1ammals such parental activities as al"e guided by instinct, are accompanied by either no representations or but vaguo representations of the benofits which the young receive j yet there are also in them actions which we may class as altruistic in the higher sense. The agitation whieh creatures of these classes show when their young are in dnnger, joined often with efforts on their behalf, as well as the grief dis..

ALTRUISM VERSUS EGOISM. 203 played after loss of their young, make it manifest that in them parental altruism has a concomitant' of emotion. Those who understand by altruiSlTI only the 90nscious sacrifice of self to others among human beings, will think it strange, or even absurd, to extend its meaning so widely. But the justification for doing this is greater than has thus far appeared. I do not mean merely that in tho course of evolution, there has been a progress through infinitesimal gradations from purely phys~cal and Inconscious sacrifices of the individual for the welfare of the species, up to sacrifice~ consciously made. I mean that from first to last the sacri. fices are, when reduced to their lowest ternls, of the same essential nature: to the last, as at first, there is involved a loss of bodily substance. When a part of the parental body is detached in the shape of gemmule, or egg, or fcetus, the material sacrifice is conspicuous; and when the. mother yields milk by absorbing which the young one graws, it' cannot be questioned that there is also a material sacrifice.

But though a material sacrifice is not manifest when the young are benefited by activities on their behalf; yet, as no effort can be made without an equivalent waste of tissue, -and as the bodll y loss is proportionate to the expenditure that takes plaCE without reimbursement in food consumed, it follows that efforts made in fostering offspring do ~eally represent a part of the parental substance; which is now given indirectly instead of directly. Self-sacrifice, then, is no less primordial than self-preser l'ation. Being in its simple physical form absolutely neces sary for the continuance of life from the beginning; and being extended under its automatic form, as indispensablo to maintenance of race in types considerably advanced; and being developed to' its semi-conscious and conscious forms, clong with the continued and. complicated attendance by which the offspring of superior creatures are brought to olaturity; altruism has been' evolving simultaneously 'with egoism. As was pointed out in an eaJ~ly chapter; the 204 THE DATA OF ETHICS.

same superiorities which have enabled the individual t~J preserve itself better, have enabled it better to preserve the individuals derived froin it; and each higher species, using its iluproved faculties prinlarily for egoistic benefit, has spread in proportion as it has used them secondarily for n]truisti~ benefit. Tho imperativeness of altruism as thus understood, is, indeed"no less than the ilnperativeness or egoisni ,vas shown to be in the last chapter. For while, on the one hanel, a falling short of norinal egoistic acts entails enfeeblement or loss of life, and therefore loss of ability to pertorn1 altru istic acts; on the other hand, such defect ot altruistic acts as causes death of offspring or inadequate development of them, involves disappearance from future generations of the nature that is not altruistic enough-so decreasing the average egolsln. In short, every species is continually 'purifying itself trOITI the unduly egoistic individuals, while there are being lost to it the unduly altrulstic individuals.

§ 76. As there has been an advance by degrees £eom nnconscious parental altruism to conscious parental altruism of the highest kind, so has there been an advance by degrees from the altruism or the falnlly to social altrllisn1. A fact to be first noted is that only where altruistic rela tions in the domestic group have reached highly-developed forms, do there arise conditions making possible full deve lopment of altruistic relations in the political group. Tribes in which promiscuity prevails or in ,,,hlch tho marital relations are transitory, and tribes in which poly andry entails in another way indefinite relationships, aro incapable of 111uch organization. Nor do peoples who are habitually polygamous, show themselv·es able to take on those high forms of social cooperation which demand due subordination of self to others. Only where monogamic marriage has become general and eventually universal only where there have consequently been establisl10d tbe ALTRUISM VERSUS EGOISM. 205 closest tIes of blood-only .where family altruism bas been IllOst fostered, has social altruism become conspicuous. It needs but to recall the compound forms of the Aryan family fiS described by Sir Henry Maine and other~, to see that family feeling, first extending itself to the gens and tho tribe, and afterwards to th~ society fornled of rehtted tdbes, prepared the way for fellow feeling an10ng citizens not . of the sanle ~tock.

Recognizing this natural transition, we are here chiefly concerned to observe that throughout the latter stages of the progress, as throughout the former, increase of egoistic satisfactions has depended on growth of regard for the satisfactions of others. On contemplating a line of succes sive' parents and offspring, ,ve see. that each, enabled while young to live by the sacrifices predecessors make for it, itself makes, ,vhen adult, equivalent sacrifices lor successors; and that in default of this general balancing of benefits received by benefits given, the line dies out. Similarly, it is manifest that in a society each generation of nlembers, indebted fbI' such benefits as· social organization yields them to pre ceding generations, ,vho have by their sacrifices elaborated this organization, are called on to make for succeeding generations such kindred sacrifices as shall at least main tain this organizati9n) if they do not i~l1prove it : the alter native being decay and eventual dissolution of· the. society, inlplying gradual decrease in the egoistic satisfactions of its menlbers.

And now we are prepared to consider the several ways in 'which, under social conditions, personal welfare depends on clue regard for the welfare of others. Already the cOllclu.., siGns to be dra,vn have been foreshadowed. As in the chapter on the biological view were impli~d the inferences definitely set forth in the last chapter; so in the chapter on the sociological view were hnplied the inferences to be definitely set forth here. Sundry of these are trite enough; 206 THE DATA OF ETHICS. but they 111ust neverthelesR be specified, since the statement would be incomplete without them. § 77. First to be dealt with comes that negative altruism implied by such curbing of the egoistic impulses as prevents direct aggression. A s before shown; if men instead of living separately are to unite for defence or for other purposes, they must seve rany reap more good than evil from the union. On the average, each must lose less from the antagonisms of those with whom he is associated, than he gains by the association.

At the outset, therefore, that increase of egoistic satisfactions which the social state brings, can be purchased only by altruism sufficient to cause some recognition of others' claims: if not a VOluntary recognition, still, a compulsory recognition. While the recognition is but of that lowest kind due to dread of retaliation, or of prescribed punishment, the egoistic gain from association is small j and it becomes considerable only as the recognition becomes voluntary that is, more altruistic. Where, as anlong some of the wild Australians, there exists no limit to the right of the strongest, and the men fight to get possession of W0111en while the wives of one man fight alnong thenlRel\'8S about him, the pursuit of egoistic satisfactions is greatly inlpeded. Besides the bodily pain occasionally given to each by conflict, and the more or less of subsequent inability to achieve personal ends, there is the waste of energy entailed in nlaintaining re~diness for self.de£ence, and there is thA accompanying occupation of consciousness by emotions that are on the average of cases disagreeable. l\10reover, the primary end of safety in presence of external foes is ill.

attained in proportion as there are internal animosities; such furtherance of satisfactions as industrial cooperation brings cannot be had j and there is little motive to labQur AL'l'l{UISM VERSUS EGOISM. 207 for extra benefits "when the products of labour are insecure.. And from this early stage to' comparatively lat~ stages, we may trace in the wearing of arms, in the carr)Ting on of family feuds, and in the taking of daily pr~cautions for safety, the ways in which the egoistic satisfactions of each are dinlinished by deficiency of that altruism which checks overt injury of others. The private interests of the individual are on the average better subserved, not only in proportion as he himself refrains from direct aggression, .but also, on the average, in proportion as he succeeds in diminishing the aggressions of his fellows on one another. The prevalence of antagonisnls among those around, impedes the activities carried on by each in pursuit of satisfactions; and by causing disorder makes the· heneficial results of activities more doubtful.

Hence, each profits egoistically from the growth of an altruism which leads each to aid in preventiu8' or diminishing others' violence. The like holds when we pass to that altruism which restrains the undue egoism displayed in breaches of contract. General acceptance of the maxim that honesty is the best policy, implies general experience that grati fication of the self-regarding feelings is eventually fur thered .by such checking of them as maintains equitable dealings. And here, as before, each is personally interested in securing good treatment of his fellows by one another. For in countless ways evils are entailed on each by the prevalence of fraudulent transactions. As everyone knows, the larger the number of a shopkeeper's bills left unpaid by some customers, the higher must be the prices which other customers pay. The more manufacturers lose by defective raw materials or by carelessness of workmen, the more must they charge for their fabrics to buyers. The less trustworthy people are, the higher rises the rate of interest, the larger becomes the amount of capital hoarded, the greater are the impediments to industry. The further 15 208 THE DATA OF ETHICS.

traders and people in general go beyond their nleans, and hypothecate the property of others in speculation, the more serious are those cOlTImercial panics which bring disasters on multitudes and injuriously affect all. This introduces us to yet a third way in which such per.. aonal welfare as results from the proportioning of benefitB gained to labours given, depends on the making of certain sacrifices for social welfare. The man who, expending his energies wholly on private affairs refuses to· take trouble about public affairs, pI nming himself on his wisdolll in minding his own business, is blind to the fact that his own business is made possible 011ly by maintenance or a healthy social state, and that he loses all round by defective governmental arrangements. Where there are many like minded with himsel£-where, as a consequence, offices come to be filled by political adventurers and opinion is swayed by demagogues-where bribery vitiates the ac1nlinistratioll of the law and makes fraudulent State-transactions habitual; heavy penalties fan on the cornn1unity at large, and, among others, on those who have thus done everything for seH and nothing ror society. Their investlnents are insecure; recovery of their debts is difficult; and even their lives are less safe than they would otherwise have been.