Chapter 28 of 28 · The Turgot Collection: Writings, Speeches, and Letters of Anne Robert Jacques Turgot, Baron de Laune by A.R.J. Turgot
Index A
Abbé de Cicé, letter to, 67–78
Abbé Gialiani, 493
Abbé Morellet, correspondence with, 494
Abbé Terrasson, Turgot on letters by, 67–78
Abstract and incommunicable essences, 376
Agriculture. See also Farmers advances in, 31
entrepreneurs, 152
return and profits from capital, 37
returns from, 55
scale of and capital, 39
slavery, 370
Alexandria, 333
Ambition, 356
America, savages, 352
American States, 500
American War, 515
Amplifications, 400
Ancient times, proprietors and farmers, 10
Angoulême, credit crisis in, 205
Appreciative value, 177
Architecture, 412
Aristotle, 385
Artisans
in class structure, 12
versus farmers, 9
Arts
architecture, 412
design, sculpture or painting, 384, 397
development of, 332
music, dance or poetry, 329, 381
Asia
despotism, 367
development and civilization, 330
sciences, 406
Athens, 332
Average valuation, money, 23
B
Bacon, Francis, 385
Bankruptcies, risk of and interest rates, 206
Barbarians
education and, 379
and empires, 364
Beans. See Grain products
Bishops, 439–48
Böhm-Bawerk, Eugen von, xxv
Bondage to the soil, land cultivation by, 16
Borrowing
by King or state, 71
for spending, 145
Bossuet, Jacques-Bénigne, 347
Brandy trade, and interest rates, 205
British America, 517
Buyers, defined by money role, 29
C
Caesars, 366
Caligulas, 365
Capital
advance in commercial enterprises, 39
capital formation and circulation of money, 138
cultivator’s, 135
equilibrium in use of, 56
equivalence with land, 34
free trade in grain, 235
interest, 135
return and profits from in agriculture, 37
and scale of agriculture, 39
scarcity of and interest, 57
Turgot’s theory of, xvii
use of, 43
value to State, 193
Capitalist-entrepreneur, xviii
Capitalists, in class system, 60
Capitalization, xxiii
Cattle
Exchange of Poissy, 303–08
as moveable wealth, 32
Cavalier Marin, 404
Charlemagne, 337
Child, Josiah, Turgot on, 79–85
Chinese, men of letters, 406
Church, separation of Church and State, 439–48
Circulation of money, 42
capital formation, 138
interest, 81
savings, 144
City states, 360
Class system
capitalists in, 60
cultivators, artisans and proprietors, 12
division of industry into capitalist entrepreneurs and workmen, 37
Clerical intolerance, 513
Colonies, 361
independence, 473
making own laws, 516
Commerce
advantages from lending and interest, 220
effect of rate of interest, 57
effects of taxation on, 94, 191
and general interest, 106
importance of gold and silver for development of, 43
valuations of money, 49–51
Commodities
as a scale or common measure, 22
equilibrium with labor, 239
money qualities, 25
as pledges on all other commodities, 25
valuation and the exchange of, 21
valuation of with regard to money, 52
valuation with gold and silver, 28
Commodity money, gold and silver as, 161–82
Competition, just wages, 147
Condorcet, correspondence with, 476–83
Conquerors, 353
Constitution
American, 501
France, 433
Consumers, free trade in grain, 237
Consumption
effect of taxation on, 229
taxes on, 136
Corporations, rights, 461
Corruption, effects of taxation on, 183
Council of National Education, 429–37
Craft-guilds
taxes attributed to, 314
Turgot’s recommendations about, 274–91
Credit, of merchants, 70
Crises, government, 492
Cultivators. See Farmers
Currencies
defined, 167
evaluation, 165
gold and silver, 166
value, 164
Cycle of life, 321
D
Dance, 381
Debts, craft-guilds, 281
Demosthenes, 399
Descartes, René, 385
Despotism
Asia, 367
women and, 371
Direct taxation, about, 189
Disposable revenue, 63
Disposable versus not disposable interest, 61
Distribution
Turgot’s theory of, xvi
wealth, 3–66
Divinity, 385
Division of labor, money’s role in facilitating, 29
Division of land, inequality of, 11
Du Pont, correspondence with, 506
Dutch. See Holland
Duties. See Taxation
E
Education
Council of National Education, 429–37
development of, 379
government and, 368
and inequality, 417–28
Empires, barbarians and, 364
Endowments, 461–69
England, right to govern other nations, 499
Entrepreneurs
agricultural entrepreneurs, 152
craft-guilds, 279
origin of, 37
road building, 263
Entrepreneurship, Turgot’s theory of, xvii
Equal division of lands hypothesis, 5
Equal exchange value, xv
Equal value, defined, 175
Equality. See also Inequality and education, 417–28
Equality of exchange, valuation, 161
Equality of value, Turgot’s interpretation of, 203
Equalization, prices, 242
Equilibrium
gold and silver, 142
prices of commodities and labor, 239
in use of capital, 56
wages, 487
between wealth, revenue and wages, 152
Esteem value
about, 172
defined, 175
Evaluation, currencies, 165
Evasion, effects of taxation on, 183
Exchange
of goods between people, 161
role in the valuation of commodities, 21
Turgot’s contribution, xiii
value of land relative to moveable wealth, 33
and values, 173–178
Exchange of Poissy, 303–08
Exchange value, defined, 175
F
Fables, 383
Faculties, 395
Fairs and markets, 87–96
Farmers. See also Agriculture;
Husbandman
benefits from free trade, 227
capital, 135
division with proprietor, 12
effect of taxation on, 231
forced labor for construction of highways, 262
free trade in grain, 234
versus artisans, 9
versus proprietors, 10
Farming. See Agriculture
Flour. See Grain products
Forced labor, for the construction of highways, 261–74
Foreign trade, 488
Foreigners, taxation of, 191
Foundations, 461–69
France
constitution, 433
free trade and industry, 147
municipalities, 431
philosophical development, 342
provinces, 433
reform for, 518
Turgot’s land taxation plan, 183–201
Fraud and malpractice, natural regulation of, 107
Free trade
about, 515
effect on French industries, 147
iron, 247–57
principles of, 150
Turgot’s background in, x
Freedom
benefits from, 226
of buying and selling, 107
of commerce, 473
Gourney on, 124
individual, 514
religious freedom, 449–58
of thought, 509
French Enlightenment, 429–37
Frenicle, M., 387
G
General interest
commerce and, 106
defined, 97
Generality of Limonges, ironworks, 249–57
Genius, 325
Geography, study of, 512
God, law, 451
Gold and silver
as commodity money, 161–82
importance to the development of industry, 43
role in commerce, 20
suitability as money, 26–29
Turgot on Law’s ideas on gold and silver, 72–75
valuation, 166
valuation with commodities, 28
Goods, defined, 151
Gourney, Marquis de, Turgot on, 97–127
Government. See also Law;
Monopolies; Regulation; State; Taxation
borrowing for spending, 145
correspondence with Condorcet, 478
crises, 492
and education, 368
end of, 510
formation of, 350
municipalities in France, 431
in nations, 359
paternal, 512
provinces in France, 433
Grain products, taxation, 291–303
Grain trade
state power and interest rates, 82, 83
Turgot’s opposition to restrictions on, 223–46
Greece
barbarism, 397
development and civilization, 331, 363
fall of eloquence, 398
language, 403
Gross product, versus net product, 193
Guilds. See Craft-guilds
H
Helvétius, 473
Heresy, 449–58
Herodotus, 383
Highways, forced labor for construction of, 261–74
fables, 383
study of, 512
on universal history, 345–414
Holland
commercial environment, 94
taxation, 159
Holy Writ, 322
Homer, 383
Houses, rent from, 136
Husbandman. See also Agriculture; Farmers
about, 355
pre-eminence of, 7
wages of, 9
I
Import duties, who pays, 230
Imports, craft-guilds, 274–91
Independence, colonies, 473
Indirect taxation
about, 190
Turgot’s criticisms of, 183–201
Individuals, rights, 461
Industry
division into capitalist entrepreneurs and workmen, 37
effect of rate of interest, 57
free trade, 147
importance of gold and silver for development of, 43
money role in advancing, 35
returns from, 55
Industry trade, 250
Inefficiencies, craft-guilds, 274–91
Inequality. See also Equality
division of land, 11
and education, 417–428
Inflation, process described, 76
Injustice
basis of, 214
craft-guilds, 278
Interest
anti-usury laws, 203–21
basis of in loans, 44–49
capital, 135
circulation of money, 81
determination of in relation to moveable wealth, 52
disposable versus not disposable, 61
effect of rate of upon enterprises, 57
free trade in grain, 235
interest rates and grain trade, 82
laws against, 84
legitimacy, 211
risk, 203–21
scarcity of capital, 57
taxes, 136
Turgot’s theory of, xvii
Intolerance, 454
clerical intolerance, 513
correspondence with Condorcet, 481
Iron, free trade, 247–57
J
Jansenists, 439–48
Justice
correspondence with Condorcet, 479
morality, 473
K
King. See State
Kings, mission of, 456
L
L’Abbé Galiani, on value, 172
Labor
equilibrium with commodities, 239
exchange of for products, 7
exchange of products for, 7
forced construction of highways, 261–74
Laborer, wage laborer and land cultivation, 14
Land
equal division of lands hypothesis, 5
equivalence with capital, 34
exchange value relative to moveable wealth, 33
inequality in the division of, 11
ownership, 10
price of, 38
proprietor drawing revenue from, 14
returns from, 54
source of moveable wealth and capital, 64
source of taxation, 228
as source of wealth, 32
taxation and, 129–46
wage labor, 14
Landowners. See Proprietors
Language
development and importance of languages, 330
evolution of, 336
Greece, 403
intermingling, 401
Latin, 403
money as a type of, 163
origin of, 374
stabilization of, 404
Latin, 403
Law, John, monetary system, 70
Laws. See also Regulation
God, 451
interest rates, 84
Leases, land, 18
Legitimacy, interest, 211
Leibniz, Gottfried, 387
Lending money, business of, 139
Lentils. See Grain products
Leper hospitals, 465
Letter on Paper-Money, 67–78
Liberty. See also Freedom and equality, 421
Loans
about, 44–49
returns from, 55
Louis XIV, 457
Louis XVI, 449–58
Lydia, 363
M
Madame de Graffigny, 419
Manufacturing. See Industry
Marginal utility, xiv
Markets. See also Fairs and markets in lending and interest, 213
Paris, 311–15
ports, 157
Marquis do Gourney, influence on Turgot, x
Marriage, 423
Mathematics, 389
Merchants
credit of, 70
political force of, 113
role of profit, 41
Metals. See Gold and silver
Metaphysical decrees, 376
Metaphysics, 391
Military spending, usefulness of by small states, 79
Mining, gold and silver, 140, 154
Money. See also Commodity money; Currencies; Inflation
as a type of language, 163
average valuation, 23
circulation of, 42
commodities and money qualities, 25
defined, 167
as merchandise, 26
price of, 219
revenue of, 19
role in advancing industry, 35
role in division of labor, 29
sterility of, 212
suitability of gold and silver as, 26–29
Turgot’s theory of, xxiv
valuation of, 75
valuation of in commerce, 49–51
valuation with regard to commodities, 52
and value, 161–82
Monies of account, 161–82
Monopolies
as a form of taxation, 192
craft-guilds, 274–91
demands for, 251
Gourney on, 104
and prices, 251
and taxation, 137
Morality
correspondence with Condorcet, 478, 483
development of, 331
and education, 428
justice, 473
Moveable wealth
accumulation of money, 30
cattle as, 32
exchange value relative to land, 33
role in determining price of interest, 52
slaves as, 33
Municipalities, France, 431
Music, 381
N
Nations
customs and dialects, 354
defined, 155
governments in, 359
intermingling of, 350
origin of, 351
wealth of, 58–60
Natural justice, and rights, 429–37
Natural philosophers, 326
Navigation, 411
Neros, 365
Net product
agriculture, 38
effect of taxation on, 231
spending expenses of in the State, 154
taxation and, 134
versus gross product, 193
O
Opinions, role in human development, 327
Original advances, 194
Ottoman Empire, 345
Ownership, land, 10
P
Paper currencies, defined, 167
Paper-Money, Letter on, 67–78
Paris
grain trade, 292–303
Parlement of Paris, 439
ports, quays, stalls, and markets, 311–15
suet trade, 309
Parlement of Paris, 439
Pastoral peoples, 352
slavery, 370
Peas. See Grain products
Penny of the price of land, defined, 34
Philosophy, 317–414
successive advances of the human mind, 321–43
Phoenicians, 329
Physics, 393
Polygamy, 369
Ports
markets, 157
Paris, 311–15
Poverty, foundations for, 461–69
Price, Dr. Richard, correspondence with, 498–506
Prices. See also Valuation and appreciative value, 177
effect of taxation on, 233
equalization, 242
equilibrium between commodities and labor, 239
land, 38
of money, 219
and monopolies, 251
Turgot’s contribution, xiii
versus value, 178
Principle of value exchangeable objects, 20
Printing, 413
Prizes and gratuities, 114
Production
division between cultivator and proprietor, 12
effects of seizing wealth, 150
exchange of for labor, 7
time factor, 6
Turgot’s theory of, xvi
Profits
about, 36
from capital in agriculture, 37
effect of taxation on, 232
free trade in grain, 238
government role in, 111
independence from interest, 211
merchants and, 41
Progress of the human mind, 373
Property, benefits from free trade, 227
Property rights, land, 10
Proprietors
benefits from free trade, 226
division with cultivator, 12
drawing revenue from lands, 14
effects of forced labor for constructing highways, 265
free trade in grain, 236
indirect taxation, 131
self-interest of, 108
source of taxation and, 228
versus farmers, 10
Provinces, France, 433
Public interest. See General interest
Q
Quays, Paris, 311–15
Quesnay, 484
R
Reason, 356
Receiver-General, taxation, 137
Reciprocal nature of transactions, 109
Regulation. See also Law
effect of, 104
effect on fairs and markets, 91
grain trade, 83
Religion
instruction in, 435
religious freedom, 449–58
separation of Church and State, 439–48
Rent
from houses, 136
ultimate source of taxation and, 228
Republics, women and, 371
Revenue
about, 193
compared to wealth, 151
disposable, 63
effects of taxation on, 183
equilibrium with wealth and wages, 152
of money, 19
net product as wealth, 149
Revolutions, 324
Rice. See Grain products
Rights
individuals and corporations, 461
morality and justice, 473
and natural justice, 429–37
Risk, interest, 203–21
Rome, 333
fall of eloquence, 398
Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, 489
Rye. See Grain products
S
Saint-Péravey, Turgot’s response to, 129–46
Salvianus, 400
Savages, America, 352
Savings
circulation of money, 144
Turgot’s theory of, xvii
Scarcity of capital and effect on interest, 57
Sciences
about, 511
Asia, 406
development of, 381
principles, 392
Security, through generating wealth, 110
Seigneur censier, land revenue, 149
Seizing wealth, 150
Self-love, 425
Sellers, defined by money role, 29
Share cropping, land cultivation by, 17
Silver. See Gold and silver
Slaves
land cultivation by, 15
as moveable wealth, 33
slavery, women and polygamy, 369
Smuggling, risk of, 136
Spain, a warning for, 517
St. Augustine, 400
Stalls, Paris, 311–15
State. See also Government; Regulation; Taxation
borrowing by, 71
defined, 156
effect of taxation on commerce, 94
separation of Church and State, 439–48
usefulness of military spending, 79
value of capital to, 193
Sterility of money, 212
Stimulating trade or industry, 250
Suet, taxation, 308–11
Systems, Gourney on, 122
T
Taille réelle, 198
Tariffs, intricacies of, 192
Taxation
cattle trade, 305
on consumption, 136
craft-guilds, 281
effect on fairs and markets, 91
grain products, 291–303
Holland, 159
indirect taxation, 147–61
interest, 136
iron, 247–57
and land, 129–46
land tax, 183–201
and monopolies, 137
multiplicity of, 112
origin of, 365
preferred revenue source, 112
principle of, 485
ratio to wages, 486
suet, 308–11
Tenants, land cultivation by, 17
Time factor, in production, 6
Tithe, about, 197
Towns, taxes on, 191
Trade
effects of taxation on, 183
stimulating, 250
wages from, 158
Transportation costs, location of fairs and markets, 91
Tucker, Dr. Josiah, correspondence with, 495
Turgot, Robert Jacques, biography, ix
Turks, despotism, 366
U
United States, 473
Usury laws, 203–21
V
Validation, of money, 75
Valuation. See also Prices
equality of exchange, 161
exchange of commodities, 21
gold and silver, 166
gold and silver with commodities, 28
land in relation to moveable wealth, 33
money and average valuation, 23
money in commerce, 49–51
money with regard to commodities, 52
principle of value exchangeable objects, 20
Value
currencies, 164
equality of value, 203
and exchange, 173–78
l’Abbé Galiani on, 172
in lending and interest, 213
and money, 161–82
Turgot’s contribution, xiii
versus price, 178
Vassalage, land cultivation by, 16
Voltaire, correspondence with, 473
W
Wage laborer, land cultivation, 14
Wages
benefits from free trade, 227
competition and, 147
effect of taxation on, 232
freedom for workers to move and employers to hire, 153
of husbandman, 9
ratio to taxes, 486
from trading, 158
of workman, 8
Wealth. See also Moveable wealth
defined, 151
distribution of, 3–66
equilibrium with revenue and wages, 153
free trade in grain, 234
land as source of, 32
of nation, 58–60
net product as, 149
seizing, 150
Wheat. See Grain products
Women
enslavement of, 369
relationships, 425
Workman, wages of, 8
The Turgot Collection: Writings, Speeches, and Letters of Anne Robert Jacques Turgot, Baron de Laune
Read the whole book online · Book details
This work is published under a Creative Commons licence. You may copy, share, and re-host it with attribution.